• Energy budgets across oceanic scales are traced from mean-flow kinetic energy to eddy energy and tidal fluxes, revealing dominant pathways of energy transfer and implications for climate-relevant surface–subsurface exchange [1], [2], [4], [9].

• Numerical circulation modeling and objective analysis underpin understanding of global and regional ocean flows, enabling diagnostic comparisons with observations and exploration of three-dimensional circulation, including Gulf Stream, abyssal, and mid-ocean dynamics [7], [13], [20], [18], [3].

• Gulf Stream dynamics and boundary currents are characterized through ring distributions, transport estimates, and eddy–current interactions, highlighting mesoscale variability in the western North Atlantic [8], [12], [13].

• Coastal upwelling and shelf processes are examined via long-term current, wind, and sea level measurements, revealing low-frequency fluctuations and alongshore variability on continental shelves [6], [17].

• Tidal energy, tidal currents, and solid-Earth deformation influence global tides and coastal sea levels, emphasizing tidal flux estimates, tidal forcing, and earth-ocean coupling [4], [9], [11], [19].